Germany

GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland), or, more properly, THE GERMAN EMPIRE (Deutsches Reich), a country of central Europe. The territories occupied by peoples of distinctively Teutonic race and language are commonly designated as German, and in this sense may be taken to include, besides Germany proper (the subject of the present article), the German-speaking sections of Austria, Switzerland and Holland. But Germany, or the German empire, as it is now understood, was formed in 1871 by virtue of treaties between the North German Confederation and the South German states, and by the acquisition, in the peace of Frankfort (May 10, 1871), of Alsace-Lorraine, and embraces all the countries of the former German Confederation, with the exception of Austria, Luxemburg, Limburg and Liechtenstein. The sole addition to the empire proper since that date is the island of Heligoland, ceded by Great Britain in 1890, but Germany has acquired extensive colonies in Africa and the Pacific (see below, Colonies).

The German empire extends from 47 16 to 55 53 N., and from 5 52 to 22 52 E. The eastern provinces project so far that the extent of German territory is much greater from southwest to north-east than in any other direction. Tilsit is 8,5 m. from Metz, whereas Hadersleben, in Schleswig, is only 540 m. from the Lake of Constance. The actual difference in time between the eastern and western points is, hour and 8 minutes, but the empire observes but one timeI hour E. of Greenwich. The empire is bounded on the S.E. and S. by Austria and Switzerland (for 1659 km.), on the S.W. by France (242 km.), on the W. by Luxemburg, Belgium and Holland (together 558 m.). The length of German coast on the North Sea or German Ocean is 293 m., and on the Baltic 927 km., the intervening land boundary on the north of Schleswig being only 47 km. The eastern boundary is with Russia 843 km. The total length of the frontiers is thus 4569 m. The area, including rivers and lakes but not the haffs or lagoons on the Baltic coast, is 208,830 sq. km., and the population (1905) 60,641,278. In respect of its area, the German empire occupied in 1909 the third place among European countries, and in point of population the second, coming in point of area immediately after Russia and Austria-Hungary, and in population next to Russia.

Political Divisions.The empire is composed of the following twenty-six states and divisions: the kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Wtirttemberg; the grand-duchies of Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, ,Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar; the duchies of Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-Meiningen; the principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Reuss-Greiz, Reuss-Schleiz, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, SchwarzburgSondershausen and Waldeck-Pyrmont; the ,free towns of Bremen, Hamburg and Lubeck, and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine.

Besides these political divisions there are certain parts of Germany which, not conterminous with political boundaries, retain appellations derived either from former tribal settlements or from divisions of the old Holy Roman Empire. These are Franconia (Franken), which embraces the districts of Bamberg, Schweinfurt and Wurzburg on the upper Main; Swabia (Schwaben), in which is included Wtirttemberg, parts of Bavaria and Baden and Hohenzollern; the Palatinate (Pfalz), embracing Bavaria west of the Rhine and the contiguous portion of Baden; Rhineland, applied to Rhenish Prussia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt and parts of Bavaria and Baden; Vogtland, the mountainous country lying in the south-west corner of the kingdom of Saxony; Lusatia (Lausitz), the eastern portion of the kingdom of Saxony and the adjacent portion of Prussia watered by the upper Spree; Thuringia (Thulingen), the country lying south of the Harz Mountains and including the Saxon duchies; East Frlesland (Ost Friesland), the country lying between the lower course of the Weser and the Ems, and Westphalia (Westfalen), the fertile plain lying north and west of the Harz Mountains and extending to the North Sea and the Dutch frontier.

Coast and Islands.The length of the coast-line is considerably less than the third part of the whole frontier. The coasts are shallow, and deficient in natural ports, except on the east of Schleswig-Holstein, where wide bays encroach upon the land, giving access to the largest vessels, so that the great naval harbour could be constructed at Kiel. With the exception of those on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein, all the important trading ports of Germany are river ports, such as Emden,Bremen, Hamburg, LUbeck, Stettin, Danzig, Konigsberg, Memel. A great difference, however, is to be remarked between the coasts of the North Sea and those of the Baltic. On the former, where the sea has broken up the ranges of dunes formed in bygone times, and divided them into separate islands, the mainland has to be protected by massive dikes, while the Frisian Islands are being gradually washed away by the waters. On the coast of East Friesjand there are now only seven of these islands, of which Norderney is best known, while of tile North Frisian Islands, on the western coast of Schleswig, Sylt is the most considerahl~. Besides the ordinary waste of the shores, there have been extensive inundations by the sea within the historic period, the gulf of the Doliart having been so caused in the year 1276. Sands surround the whole coast of the North Sea to such an extent that the entrance to the ports is not practicable without the aid of pilots. Heligoland is a rocky island, but it 1ie. the territory once under the jurisdiction of an imperial Vogi or advocalus (see ADVOCATE).

also has been considerably reduced by the sea. The tides rise to the height of 12 or 13 ft. in the Jade Bay and at Bremerhaven, and 6 or 7 ft. at Hamburg. The coast of the Baltic, on the other hand, possesses few islands, the chief being Alsen and Fehmarn off the coast of Schleswig-Holstein, and Rtigen off Pomerania. It has no extensive sands, though on the whole very flat. The Baltic has no perceptible tides; and a great part of its coast-line is in winter covered with ice, which also so blocks up the harbours that navigation is interrupted for several months every year. Its haffs fronting the mouths of the large rivers must be regarded as lagoons or extensions of the river beds, not as bays. The Pommersche or Oder Haff is separated from the sea by two islands, so that the river flows out by three mouths, the middle one (Swine) being the most considerable. The Frische Haff is formed by the Nogat, a branch of the Vistula, and by the Pregel, and communicates with the sea by means of the Pillauer Tief. The Kurische Haff receives the Memel, called Niemenin Russia, and has its outlet in the extreme north at Memel. Long narrow alluvial strips called Nehrungen, lie between the last two haffs and the Baltic. The Baltic coast is further marked by large indentations, the Gulf of LUbeck, that of Pomerania, east of Rugen, and the semicircular Bay of Danzig between the promontories of Rixhoft and Brusterort. The German coasts are well provided with lighthouses.

Surface.In respect of physical structure Germany is divided into two entirety distinct portions, which bear to one another a ratio of about 3 to 4. The northern and larger part may be described as a uniform plain. South and central Germany, on the other hand, is very much diversified in scenery. It possesses large plateaus, such as that of Bavaria, which stretches away from the foot of the Alps, fertile low plains like that intersected by the Rhine, mountain chains and isolated groups of mountains, comparatively low in height, and so situated as not seriously to interfere with communication either by road or by railway.

Bavaria is the only division of the country that includes within it any part of the Alps, the Austro-Bavarian frontier running along the ridge of the Northern Tirolese or Bavarian Alps. The M

loftiest peak of this group, the Zugspitze (57 m. S. of Munich), is 9738 ft. in height, being the highest summit Jateaus in the empire. The upper German plain sloping north- ~

wards from the Bavarian Alps is watered by the Lech, the Tsar and the Inn, tributaries of the Danube, all three rising beyond the limits of German territory. This plain is separated on the west from the Swiss plain by the Lake of Constance (Bodensee, 1306 ft. above sea-level), and on the east from the undulating grounds of Austria by the Inn. The average height of the plain ~nay be estimated at about 1800 ft., the valley of the Danube on its north border being from 1540 ft. (at Ulm) to 920 ft. (at Passau). The plain is not very fertile. In the upper part of the plain, towards the Alps, there are several lakes, the largest being the Ammersee, the WUrmsee or Starnberger See and the Chiemsee. Many portions of the plain are covered by moors and swamps of large extent, called Moose. The left or northern bank of the Danube from Regensburg downwards presents a series of granitic rocks called the Bavarian Forest (Bayrischer Wald), which must be regarded as a branch of the Bohemian Forest (Bohmer Wald). The latter is a range of wooded heights on the frontier of Bavaria and Bohemia, occupying the least known and least frequented regions of Germany. The summits of the Bayrischer Wald rise to the height of about 4000 ft., and those of the Bohmer Wald to 4800 ft., Arber being 4872 ft. The valley of the Danube above Regensburg is flanked by plateaus sloping gently to the Danube, but precipitous towards the valley of the Neckar. The centre of this elevated tract is the Rauhe Alb, so named on account of the harshness of the climate. The plateau continuing to the north-east and then to the north, under the name of the Franconian Jura, is crossed by the valley of the winding AltmUhl, and extends to the Main. To the west extensive undulating grounds or low plateaus occupy the area between the Main and the Neckar.

The south-western corner of the empire contains a series of better defined hill-ranges. Beginning with the Black Forest (Schwarzwald), we find its southern heights decline to the valley of the Rhine, above Basel, and to the Jura. The summits are rounded and covered with wood, the highest being the Feldberg (10 m. S.E. of Freiburg, 4898 ft.). Northwards the Black Forest passes into the plateau of the Neckarbergland (average height, iooo ft.). The heights between the lower Neckar and the Main form the Odenwald (about 1700 ft.); and the Spessart, which is watered by the Main on three sides, is nothing but a continuation of the Odenwald. West of this range of hills lies the valley of the upper Rhine, extending about 180 m. from south to north, and with a width of only 20 to 25 m. In the upper parts the Rhine is rapid, and therefore navigable with difficulty; this explains why the towns there are not along the banks of the river, but some 5 to 10 m. off. But from Spires (Speyer) town succeeds town as far down as Dsseldorf. The western boundary of this valley is formed in the first instance by the Vosges, where granite summits rise from under the surrounding red Triassic rocks (Suizer Belchen, 4669 ft.). To the south the range is not continuous with the Swiss Jura, the valley of the Rhine being connected here with the Rhone system by low ground known as the Gate of Mulhausen. The crest of the Vosges is pretty high and unbroken, the first convenient pass being near Zabern, which is followed by the railway from Strassburg to Paris. On the northern side the Vosges are connected with the Hardt sandstone plateau (Kalmit, 2241 ft.), which rises abruptly from the plain of the Rhine. The mountains south of Mainz, which are mostly covered by vineyards, are lower, the Donnersberg, however, raising its head to 2254 ft. These hills are bordered on the west by the high plain of Lorraine and the coalfields of Saarbrucken, the former being traversed by the river Mosel. The larger part of Lorraine belongs to France, but the German part nossesses great mineral wealth in its rich layers of ironstone (siderite) and in the coal-fields of the Saar. The tract of the Hunsruck, Taunus and Eifel is an extended plateau, divided into separate sections by the river valleys. Among these the Rhine valley from Bingen to Bonn, and that of the Mosel from Trier to Coblenz, are winding gorges excavated by the rivers. The Eifel presents a sterile, thinly-peopled plateau, covered by extensive moors in several places. It passes westwards imperceptibly into the Ardennes. The hills on the right bank of the Rhine also are in part of a like barren character, without wood; the Westerwald (about 2000 ft.), which separates the valleys of the Sieg and Lahn, is particularly so. The northern and southern limits of the Niederrheinische Gebirge present a striking contrast to the central region. In the south the declivities of the Taunus (2890 ft.) are marked by the occurrence of mineral springs, as at Ems on the Lahn, Nauheim; Homburg, Soden, Wiesbaden, &c., and by the vineyards which produce the best Rhine wines. To the north of this system, on the other hand, lies the great coal basin of Westphalia, the largest in Germany. In the south of the hilly duchy of Hesse rise the isolated mountain groups of the Vogelsberg (2530 ft.) and the Rhon (3117 ft.), separated by the valley of the Fulda, which uniting farther north with the Werra forms the Weser. To the east of Hesse lies Thuringia, a province consisting of the far-stretching wooded ridge of the Thuringian Forest (ThUringerwald; with three peaks upwards of 3000 ft. high), and an extensive elevated plain to the north. Its rivers are the Saale and Unstrut. The plateau is bounded on the north by the Harz, an isolated group of mountains, rich in minerals, with its highest elevation in the bare summit of the Brocken (3747 ft-). To the west of the Harz a series of hilly tracts is comprised under the name of the Weser Mountains, out of which above Minden the river Weser bursts by the Porta Westphalica. A narrow ridge, ~he Teutoburger Wald (1300 ft.), extends between the Weser and the Ems as far as the neighborhood of OsnabrQck.

To the east the Thuringian Forest is connected by the plateau of the Frankenwald with the Fichtelgebirge. This group of mountains, occupying what may be regarded as ethnologically the centre of Germany, forms a hydrographical centre, whence the Naab flows southward to the Danube, the Main westward to the Rhine, the Eger eastward to the Elbe, and the Saale northward, also into the Elbe. In the north-east the Fichtelgebirge connects itself directly with the Erzgebirge, which forms the northern boundary of Bohemia. The southern sides of this range are comparatively steep; on the north it slopes gently down to the plains of Leipzig, but is intersected by the deep valleys of the Elster and Mulde. Although by no means fertile, the Erzgebirge is very thickly peopled, as various branches of industry have taken root there in numerous small places. Around Zwickau there are productive coal-fields, and milling for metals is carried on near Freiberg. In the east a tableland of sandstone, called Saxon Switzerland, from the picturesque outlines into which it has been eroded, adjoins the Erzgebirge; one of its most notable features is the deep ravine by which the Elbe escapes from it. Numerous quarries, which supply the North German cities with stone for buildings and monuments, have been opened along the valley. Tile standstone range of the Elbe tinites in the east with the low Lusatian group, along the east of which runs the best road from northern Germany to Bohemia. Then comes a range of lesser hills clustering together to form the frontier between Silesia and Bohemia. The most western group is the Isergebirge, and the next the Riesengebirge, a narrow ridge of about 20 miles length, with bare summits. Excluding the Alps, the Schneekoppe (5266 ft.) is the highest peak in Germany; and the southern declivities of this range contain the sources of the Elbe. The hills north and north-east of it are termed the Silesian Mountaihs. Here one of the minor coal-fields gives employment to a population grouped round a number of comparatively small centres. One of the main roadf into Bohemia (the pass of Landshut) runs along the eastern base of the Riesengebirge. Still farther to the east the mountains are grouped around the hollow of Glatz, whence the Neisse forces its way towards the north. This hollow is shut in on the east by the Sudetic group, in which the Altvater risesto almost 4900 ft. The eastern portion of the group, called the Gesenke, slopes gently away to the valley of the Oder, which affords an open route for the inter. national traffic, like that through the Mlhausen Gate in Alsace. Geographers style this the Moravian Gate.

The North German plain presents little variety, yet is not absolutely uniform. A row of low hills runs generally parallel to the mountain ranges already noticed, at a distance of 20 to 3om. to the north. To these belongs the upper Silesian coal-basin, which occupies a considerable area in south-eastern Silesia. North of the middle districts of the Elbe country the heights are called the Flaming hills. Westward lies as the last link of this series the Luneburger Heide or Heath, between the Weser and Elbe, north of Hanover. A second tract, of moderate elevation, sweeps round the Baltic, without, however, approaching its shores. This plateau contains a considerable number of lakes, and is divided into three portions by the Vistula and the Oder. The most eastward is the so-called Prussian Seenplatte. Spirdingsee (430 ft. above sealevel and 46 sq. m. in area) and Mauersee are the largest lakes; they are situated in the centre of the plateau, and give rise to the Pregel. Some peaks near the Russian frontier attain to 1000 ft. The Pomeranian Seenplatte, between the Vistula and the Oder, extends from SW. to N.E., its greatest elevation being in the neighborhood of Danzig (Turmberg, 1086 ft.). The Seenpiatte of Mecklenburg, on the other hand, stretches from S.E. to N.W., and most of its lakes, of which the Mritz is the largest, send their waters towards the Elbe. The finely wooded heights which surround the bays of the east coast of Holstein and Schleswig may be regarded as a continuation of these Baltic elevations. The lowest parts, therefore, of the North German plain, excluding the sea-coasts, are the central districts from about 52 to 53 N. lat., where the Vistula, Netze, Warthe, Oder, Spree and Havel form vast swampy lowlands (in German called Brche), which have been considerably reduced by the construction of canals and by cultivation, improvements due in large measure to Frederick the Great. The Spreewald, to the S.E. of Berlin, is one of the most remarkable districts of Germany. As the Spree divides itself there into innumerable branches, enclosing thickly wooded islands, boats form the only means of communication. West of Berlin the Havel widens into what are called the I3avel lakes, to which the environs of Potsdam owe their charms. In general the soil of the North German plain cannot be termed fertile, the cultivation nearly everywhere requiring severe and constant labor. Long stretches of ground are covered by moors, and there turfcutting forms the principal occupation of the inhabitatits. The greatest extent of moorland is found in the westernmost parts of the plain, in Oldenburg and East Frisia. The plain contains, however, a few districts of the Utmost fertility, particularly the tracts on the central Elbe, and the marsh lands on the west coast of Holstein and the north coast of Hanover, Oldenburg and East Frisia, which, within the last two centuries, the inhabitants have reclaimed from the sea by means of immense dikes.

Rivers.Nine independent river-systems may be distinguished:

those of the Memel, I regel, Vistula (Weichsel), Oder, Elbe, Weser, Ems, Rhine and Danube. Of these the Pregel, Weser and Ems belong entirely, and the Oder mostly, to the German empire. The Danube has its sources on German soil; but only a fifth part of its course is German. Its total length is I 750 m., and the Bavarian frontier at Passau, where the Inn joins it, is only 350 m. distant from its sources. It is navigable as far as Ulm, 220 m. above Passau; and its tributaries the Lech, Isar, Inn and Altmuhl are also navigable. The Rhine is the most important river of Germany~ although neither its sources nor its mouths are within the limits of the empire. From the Lake of Constance to Base! (122 m.) the Rhine forms the boundary between the German empire and Switzerland; the canton of Schaffhausen, however, is situated on the northern bank of the river. From Easel to below Emmerich the Rhine belongs to the German empireabout 470 m. or four-sevenths of its whole course. It is navigable all this distance as are also the Neckar from Esslingen, the Main from Bamberg, the Lahn, the Lippe, the Ruhr, the Mosel from Metz, with its affluents the Saar and Satier. Sea-going vessels sail up the Ems as far as Halte, and river craft as far as Greven, and the river is connected with a widely branching system of canals, ,as the Ems-Jade and Dortmund-Ems canals. The Fulda, navigable for 63 m., and the Werra, 38 m., above the point where they unite, form by their junction the Weser, which has a course of 271 m., and receives as navigable tributaries the Aller, the Leine from Hanover, and some smaller streams. Oceangoing steamers, however, cannot get as far as Bremen, and unload at Bremerhaven. The Elbe, after a course of 250 m., enters German territory near Bodenbach, 490 m. from its mouth. It is navigable above this point through its tributary, the Moldau, to Prague. Hamburg may be reached by vessels of 17 ft. draught. The navigable tributaries of the Elbe are the Saale (below Naumburg), the Havel, Spree, Elde, Sude and some others. The Odor begins to be navigable almost on the frontier at Ratibor, 480 m. from its mouth, receiving as navigable tributaries the Glatz Neisse and the Warthe. Only the lower course of the Vistula belongs to the German empire, within which it is a broad, navigable stream of considerable volume. On the Pregel ships of 3000 tons reach Kdnigsberg, and river barges reach Insterburg; the Alle, its tributary, may also be navigated. The Memel is navigable in its course of 113 m. from the Russian frontier. Germany is thus a country abounding in natural waterways, the total length of them being estimated at 7000 m. But it is only the Rhine, in its middle course, that has at all times sufficient volume of water to meet the requirements of a good navigable river.

Lakes.The regions which abound in lakes have already been pointed out. The Lake of Constance or Bodensee (2043/4 sq. m.) is on the frontier of the empire, portions of the northern banks belonging severally to Bavaria, Wurttembcrg and Baden. In the south the largest lakes are the Chiemsee (33 sq. m.); the Ammersee and the Wrmsee. A good many smaller lakes are to be found in the Bavarian Alps. The North German plain is dotted with upwards of 500 lakes, covering an area of about 2500 sq. m. The largest of these are the three Haffsthe Oder Haff covering 370 sq. m., the Frische Haff, 332, and the Kurische Haff, 626. The lakes in the Prussian and Pomeranian provinces, in Mecklenburg and in Holstein, and those of the Havel, have already been mentioned. In the west the only lakes of importance are the Steinhuder Meer, 14 m. northwest of Hanover, and the Dummersee on the southern frontier of Oldenburg. (P. A. A.)

Geology.Germany consists of a floor of folded Palaeozoic rocks upon which rest unconformably the comparatively little disturbed beds of the Mesozoic system, while in the North German plain a covering of modern deposits conceals the whole of the older strata from view, excepting some scattered and isolated outcrops of Cretaceous and Tertiary beds. The rocks which compose the ancient floor are thrown into folds which run approximately from W.S.W. to EN.E. They are exposed on the one hand in the neighborhood of the Rhine and on the other hand in the Bohemian massif. With the latter must be included the Frankenwald, the Thuringerwald, and even the Harz. The oldest rocks, belonging to the Archaean system, occur in the south, forming the Vosges and the Black Forest in the west, and the greater part of the Bohemian massif, including the Erzgebirge, in the east. They consist chiefly of gneiss and schist, with granite and other eruptive rocks. Farther. north, in the Hunsrck, the Taunus, the Eifel and Westerwald, the Harz and the Frankenwald, the ancient floor is composed mainly of Devonian beds. Other Palaeozoic systems are, however, included in the folds. The Cambrian, for example, is exposed at Leimitz near Hof in the Frankenwald, and the important coal-field of the Saar lies on the southern side of the Hunsruck, while Ordovician and Silurian beds have been found in several localities. Along the northern border of the folded belt lies the coal basin of the Ruhr in Westphalia, which is the continuation of the Belgian coal-field, and bears much the same relation to the Rhenish Devonian area that the coal basin of Liege bears to the Ardennes. Carboniferous and Devonian beds are also found south-east of the Bohemian massif, where lies the extensive coal-field of Silesia. The Permian, as in England, is not involved in the folds which have affected the older beds, and in general lies unconformably upon them. It occurs chiefly around the masses of ancient rock, ~nd one of the largest areas is that of the Saar.

Between the old rocks of the Rhine on the west and the ancient inassif of Bohemia on the east a vast area of Triassic beds extends from Hanover to Basel and from Metz to Bayreuth. Over the greater part of this region the Triassic beds are free from folding and are nearly horizontal, but faulting is by no means absent, especially along the margins of the Bohemian and Rhenish hills. The Triassic beds must indeed have covered a large part of these old rock masses, but they have been preserved only where they were faulted down to a lower level. Along the southern margin of the Triassic area there is a long band of Jurassic beds dipping towards the Danube; and at its eastern extremity this band is continuous with a synclinal of Jurassic beds, running parallel to the western border of the Bohemian massif, but separated from it by a narrow strip of Triassic beds. Towards the north, in Hanover and Westphalia, the Triassic beds are followed by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits, the latter being here the more important. As in the south of England, the lower beds of the Cretaceous are of estuarine origin and the Upper Cretaceous overlaps the Lower, lying in the valley of the Ruhr directly upon the Palaeozoic rocks. In Saxony also the upper Cretaceous beds rest directly upon the Palaeozoic or Archaean rocks. Still more to the east, in the province of Silesia, both Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are again met with, but they are to a large extent concealed by the recent accumulations of the great plain. The Eoccne system is unknown in Germany except in the foothills of the Alps; but the Oligocene and Miocene are widely spread, especially in the great plain and in the depression of the Danube. The Ohgocene is generally marine. Marine Miocene occurs in N.W. Germany and the Miocene of the Danube valley is also in part marine, but in central Germany it is of fluviatile or lacustrine origin. The lignites of Hesse, Cassel, &c., are interstratified with basaltic lava-flows which form the greater part of the Vogelsbarg and other hills. The trachytes of the Siebengebirge are probably of slightly earlier date. The precise age of the volcanoes of the Eifel, many of which are in a very perfect state of preservation, is not clear, but they are certainly Tertiary or Post-tertiary. Leucite and nepheline lavas are here abundant. In the Siebengebirge the little crater of Roderberg, with its lavas and scoriae of leucite-basalt, is posterior to some of the Pleistocene river deposits.

A glance at a geological map of Germany will show that the greater part of Prussia and of German Poland is covered by Quaternary deposits. These are in part of glacial origin, and contain Scandinavian boulders; but fluviatile and aeolian deposits also occur. Ouaternarv beds also cover the floor of the broad deoression throuch which the Rhine meanders from Basel to Mainz, and occupy a large part of the plain of the Danube. The depression of the Rhine is a trough lying between two faults or system of faults. The very much broader depression of the Danube is associated with the formation of the Alps, and was flooded by the sea during a part of the Miocene period. (p, LA.)

Climala.The climate of Germany is to be regarded as intermediate between the oceanic and continental climates of western and eastern Europe respectively. It has nothing in common with the Mediterranean climate of southern Europe, Germany being separated from that region by the lofty barrier of the Alps. Although there are very considerable differences in the range of temperature and the amount of rainfall throughout Germany, these are not so great as they would be were it not that the elevated plateaus and mountain chains are in the south, while the north is occupied by low-lying plains. In the west no chain of hills intercepts the warmer and moister winds which blow from the Atlantic, and these accordingly influence at times even the eastern regions of Germany. The mean annual temperature of south-western Germany, or the Rhine and Danube basins, is about 52 to 54 F., that of central Germany 48 to 50, and that of the northern plain 46 to 48. In Pomerania and West Prussia it is only 44 to 45, and in East Prussia 42 to 44. The Quatersmary Triassic Siluro-Cambrian Tertiary Perniian A,chaew, & Metamo~-phic LIIIII1 Cretaceous r~j~,1Caiboniferous l~.IPlatonic Rocks Juras~(c ~ Ocuonlan Volcanic Rocks mean January temperature varies between 22 and 34 (in Masuren and Cologne respectively); the mean July temperature, between 61 in north Schleswig and 68 at Cologne. The extremes of cold and heat are, as recorded in the ten years 1895-1905, 7 in Konigsberg and 93 ifl Heidelberg (the hottest place in Germany). The difference in the mean annual temperature between the south-west and northwest of Germany amounts to about 3. The contrasts of heat and cold are furnished by the valley of the Rhine above Mainz, which has the greatest mean heat, the mildest winter and the highest summer temperature, and the lake plateau of East Prussia, where Arys on the Spirdingsee has a like winter temperature to the Brocken at 3200 ft. The Baltic has the lowest spring temperature, and the autumn there is also not characterized by an appreciably higher degree of warmth. In central Germany the high plateaus of the Erz and Fichtelgebirge are the coldest regions. In south Germany the upper Bavarian plain experiences an inclement winter and a cold summer. In Alsace-Lorraine the Vosges and the plateau of Lorraine are also remarkable for low temperatures. The warmest districts of the German empire are the northern parts of the Rhine plain, from Karlsruhe downwards, especially the Rheintal; these are scarcely 300 ft. above the sea-level, and are protected by mountainous tracts ~of land. The same holds true of the valleys of the Neckar, Main and Mosel. Hence the vine is everywhere cultivated in these districts. The mean summer temperature there is 66 and upwards, while the average temperature of January does not descend to the freezing point (32). The climate of north-western Germany (west of the Elbe) shows a predominating oceanic character, the summers not being too hot (mean summer temperature 60 to 62), and snow in winter remaining but a short time on the ground. West of the Weser the average temperature of January exceeds 32; to the east it sinks to 30, and therefore the Elbe is gem~erally covered with ice for some months of the year. as are also its tributaries. The farther one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 60 to 62, the January temperature falls as low as 26 to 28 in West Prussia, Posen and Silesia, and 22 to 26 in East Prussia and upper Silesia. The navigation of the rivers is regularly interrupted by frost. Similarly the upper basin of,the Danube, or the Bavarian plain, has a rather inclement climate in winter, the average for January being 25 to 26.

As regards rainfall, Germany belongs to those regions where precipitation takes place at all seasons, but chiefly in the form of summer rains. In respect to the quantity of rain the empire takes a middle position between the humidity of north-western Europe and the aridity of the east. There are considerable differences between particular places. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian tableland and the hilly regions of western Germany. For the Eifel, Sauerland, Harz, Thuringian Forest, Rhn, Vogelsberg, Spessart, the Black Forest, the Vosges, &c., the annual average may be stated at 34 in. or more, while in the lower terraces of south-western Germany, as in the Erzgebirge and the Sudetic range, it is estimated at 30 to 32 in. only. The same average obtains also on the humid north-west coast of Germany as far as Bremen and Hamburg. In the remaining parts of western Germany, on the shores of farther Pomerania, and in East Prussia, it amounts to upwards of 24 in. In western Germany there is a district famous for the scarcity of rain and for producing the best kind of wine: in the valley of the Rhine below Strassburg, in the Palatinate, and also in the valley of the Main, no more than from 16 to 20 in. fall. Mecklenburg, Brandenburg and Lusatia, Saxony and the plateau of Thuringia, West Prussia, Posen and lower Silesia are also to be classed among the more arid regions of Germany, the annual rainfall being 16 to 20 in. Thunderstorms are most frequent in July. and vary between fifteen and twenty-five in the central districts, descending in the eastern provinces of Prussia to ten annually.

Flora.The flora of Germany comprises 3413 species of phanerogamic and 4306 cryptogamic plants. The country forms a section of the central European zone, and its flora is largely under the influence of the Baltic and Alpine elements, which to a great degree here coalesce. All plants peculiar to the temperate zone abound. Wheat, rye, barley and oats are cultivated everywhere, but spelt only in the south and buckwheat in the north and north-west. Maize only ripens in the south. Potatoes grow in every part of the country, those of the sandy plains in the north being of excellent quality. All the commoner sorts of fruitapples, pears, cherries, &c.grow everywhere, but the more delicate kinds, such as figs, apricots and peaches, are confined to the warmer districts. The vine flourishes as far as the 51 N., but only yields good wine in the districts of the Rhine and Danube. Flax is grown in the north, and hemp more particularly in the central districts. Rape can be produced everywhere when the soil permits. Tobacco is cultivated on the upper Rhine and in the Are valley of the Oder. The northern plain, especially in the province of Saxony, pro- States of the Empire. duces beet (for sugar), and hops are largely grown in Bavaria, ____________________________ WUrttemberg, Alsace, Baden Kingdoms and the Prussian province of Prussia Posen Bavaria Speaking generally, northern Saxony .

Germany is not nearly so well Wurttemberg Forests, wooded as central Grand-Duchies and southern Ger- Baden many, where indeed most of the Hesse lower mountains are covered Mecklenburg-Schwerin -

with timber, as is indicated by the frequent use of the termina- Saxe-Weimar tion wald affixed to the names Mecklenburg-Strelitz. -

Oldenburg - .

of the mountain ranges (as Duchies Schwarzwald, Thuringerwald, Brunswick &c.). The Seenplatten are Saxe-Meiningen .

less wooded than the hill Saxe-Altenburg .

country, but the eastern por- Saxe-Coburg-Gotha tion of the northern lowlands Anhalt is well provided with timber. Principalities A narrow strip along the shores Schwarzburg-Sondershausen of the Baltic is covered with Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt -

oaks and beeches; farther in- Waldeck land, and especially east of the Reuss-Greiz Elbe, coniferous trees are the Reuss-Schleiz most prevalent, praticularly Schaumburg-Lippe .

the Scotch fir; birches are also Lippe abundant. The mountain forests consist chiefly of firs, Free Towns pines and larches, but contain Lbeck also silver firs, beeches and Bremen oaks. Chestnuts and walnuts Hamburg appear on the terraces of the Imperial Territory Alsace-Lorraine .

Rhine valley and in Swabia and Franconia. The whole north-west of Germany ~s desti- German Empire. - -

tute of wood, but to compensate for this the people have ample supplies of fuel in the extensive stretches of turf, Fauna.The number of wild animals in Germany is not very great. Foxes, martens, weasels, badgers and otters are to be found everywhere; bears are found in the Alps, wolves are rare, but they find their way sometimes from French territory to the western provinces, or from Poland to Prussia and Posen. Among the rodents the hamster and the field-mouse are a scourge to agriculture. Of game there are the roe, stag, boar and hare; the fallow deer and the wild rabbit are less common. The elk is to be found in the forests of East Prussia. The feathered tribes are everywhere abundant in the fields, woods and marshes. Wild geese and ducks, grouse, partridges, snipe, woodcock, quails, widgeons and teal are plentiful all over the country, and in recent years preserves have been largely stocked with pheasants. The length of time that birds of passage remain in Germany differs considerably with the different species. The stork is seen for about 170 days, the house-swallow 160, the snow-goose 260, the snipe 220. In northern Germany these birds arrive from twenty to thirty days later than in the south.

The waters of Germany abound with fish; but the genera and species are few. The carp and salmon tribes are the most abundant; after them rank the pike, the eel, the shad, the roach, the perch and the lamprey. The Oder and some of the tributaries of the Elbe abound in crayfish, and in the stagnant lakes of East Prussia leeches are bred. In addition to frogs, Germany has few varieties of Amphibia. Of serpents there are only two poisonous kinds, the common viper and the adder (Kreuzotter).

Population.Until comparatively recent times no estimate of the population of Germany was precise enough to be of any value. At the beginning of the I 9th century the country was divided into some hundred states, but there was no central agency for instituting an exact census on a uniform plan. The formation of the German Confederation in 1815 effected but little change in this respect, and it was left to the different states to arrange in what manner the census should be taken. On the foundation, however, of the German customs union, or Zoilverein, between certain German states, the necessity for accurate statistics became apparent and care was taken to compile trustworthy tables, Researches show the population of the German empire, as at present constituted, to have been:

(1816) 24,833,396; (1855) 36,113,644; and (1871) 41,058,792.

The following table shows the population and area of each of the states included in the empire for the years 1871, 1875, 1900 and 1905: and Population of the German States.

Are,a Population. Density thgllsh per q. m. 1871.1875.1900.1905. Sq. m.

34,616 24,691,433 25,742,404 34,472,509 37,293,324 277.3

29,292 4,863,450 5,022,390 6,176,057 6,524,372 222.7

5,789 2,556,244 2,760,586 4,202,216 4,508,601 778.8

7,534 1,818,539 1,881,505 - 2,169,480 2,302,179 305.5

5,823 1,461,562 1,507,179 1,867,944 2,010,728 345.3

2,966 852,894 884,218 1,119,893 1,209,175 4076

5,068 557,897 553,785 607,770 625,045 123.3

1,397 286,183 292,933 362,873 388,095 277.8

I,f31 96,982 95,673 102,602 103,451 91.5

2,482 314,459 319,314 399,180 438,856 176.8

1,418 311,764 327,493 464,333 485,958 342.5

953 187,957 194,494 250,731 268,916 282~2

511 142,122 145,844 194,914 206,508 404.1

764 174,339 182,599 229,550 242,432 317.3

888 203,437 2,3,565 316,085 328,029 369.4

333 75,523 76,676 80,898 85,152 255.7

363 67,191 67,480 93,059 96,835 266.7

433 56,224 54,743 57,918 59,127 136.5

122 45,094 46,985 68,396 70,603 578~7

319 89,032 92,375 139,210 144,584 453.2

131 32,059 33,133 43,132 44,992 3434

469 111,135 112,452 138,952 145,577 310.4

115 52,158 5,912 96,775 105,857 920.5

99 122,402 142,200 224,882 263,440 2661.0

I6o 338,974 388,618 768,349 874,878 5467~9

5,604 1,549,738 1,531,804 1,719,470 1,814,564 323~8

208,780 41,058,792 42,727,360 I 56,367,178 60,641,278 290.4

The population of the empire has thus increased, since 1871, by 19,582,486 or 47-6%. The increase of population during 1895 1900 was greatest in Hamburg, Bremen, LUbeck, Saxony, Prussia and Baden, and least in Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Wakieck. Of the total population in 1900, 54.3% was urban (ie. living in towns of 2000 inhabitants and above), leaving 45~7% to be classified as rural. On the 1st of L)ecembei 1905, of the total population 29,884,681 were males and 30,756,597 females; and it is noticeable that the male population shows of late years a larger relative increase than the female, the male population having in five years increased by 2,147,434 and the female by only 2,126,666. The greater increase in the male population is attributable to diminished emigration and to the large increase in immigrants, who are mostly males. In 1905, 485,906 marriages were contracted in Germany, being at the rate of 8o per thousand inhabitants. In the same year the total number of births was 2,048,453. Of these, 61,300 were stillborn and 174,494 illegitimate, being at the rate, respectively, of 3% and 8.5% of the total. Illegitimacy is highest in Bavaria (about 15%), Berlin (14%), and over 12% in Saxony, MecklenburgSchwerin and Saxe-Meiningen. It is lowest in the Rhine Province and Westphalia (39 and 2~6 respectively). Divorce is steadily on the increase, being in 1904, II ~I per 10,000 marriages, as against 8-i, 8-1, 9-3 and 10.1 for the four preceding years. The average deaths for the years 1901-1905 amounted to 1,227,903 the rate was thus 202 per thousand inhabitants, but the death-rate has materially decreased, the total number of deaths in 1907 standing at 1,178,349; the births for the same year were 2,060,974. In connection with suicides, it is interesting to observe that the highest rates prevail in some of the smaller and more prosperous states of the empire for example, in Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and SaxeAltenhurg (on a three years average of figures), while the Roman Catholic country Bavaria, and the impoverished Prussian province of Posen show the most favorable statistics. For Prussia the rate is 20, and for Saxony it is as high as 31 per 100,000 inhabitants. The large cities, notably Berlin, Hamburg, Breslau and Dresden, show, however, relatively the largest proportion.

In 1900 the German-speaking population of the empire amounted to 51,883,131. Of the inhabitants speaking other languages there were: Polish, 3,086,489; French (mostly in Lorraine), 211,679; Masuran, 142,049; Danish, 141,061; Lithuanian, 106,305; Cassubian, 100,213; Wendish, 93,032; Dutch, 80,36,; Italian, 65,961; Moravian, 64,382; Czech, 43,016; Frisian, 20,677; English, 20,217; Walloon, 11,841. In 1905 there were resident within the empire 1,028,560 subjects of foreign states, as compared with 778,698 in 1900. Of these 17,293 were subjects of Great Britain and Ireland, 17,184 of the United States of America and 20,584 of France. The bulk of the other foreigners residing in the country belonged to countries lying contiguous, such as Austria, which claimed nearly the half, Russia and Italy.

Languages.The German-speaking nations in their various branches and dialects, if we include the Dutch and the Walloons, extend in a compact mass along the shores of the Baltic and of the North Sea, from Memel in the east to a point between Gravelines and Calais near the Straits of Dover. On this northern line the Germans come in contact with the Danes who inhabit the northern parts of Schleswig within the limits of the German empire. A line from Flensburg south-westward to Joldelund and thence northwestward to Hoyer will nearly give the boundary between the two idioms.i The German-French frontier traverses Belgium from west to east, touching the towns of St Omer, Courtrai and Maastricht. Near Eupen, south of Aix-la-Chapelle, it turns southward, and near Anon south-east as far as the crest of the Vosges mountains, which it follows upto Belfort, traversing there the watershed of the Rhine and the Doubs. In the Swiss territory the line of demarcation passes through Bienne, Fnibourg, Saanen, Leuk and Monte Rosa. In the south the Germans come into contact with Rhaeto-Romans and Italians, the former inhabiting the valley of the Vorder-Rhein and the Engadine, while the latter have settled on the southern slopes of the Alps, and are continually advancing up the valley of the Adige. Carinthia and Styria are inhabited by German people, except the valley of the Drave towards Kiagenfurt. Their eastern neighbors there are first the Magyars, then the northern Slays and the Poles. The whole eastern frontier is very much broken, and cannot be described in a few words. Besides detached German colonies in Hungary proper, there is a considerable and compact German (Saxon) population in Transylvania. The river March is the frontier north of the Danube from Pressburg as far as BrUnn, to the north of which the German regions begin near Olmtz, the interior of Bohemia and Moravia being occupied by Czechs and Moravias. In these countries the Slav language has been steadily superseding the German. In the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Posen the eastern parts ate mixed territories, the German language progressing very slowly among the Poles. In Bromberg and Thorn, in the valley of the Vistula, German is prevalent. In West Prussia some parts of th interior, and in East Prussia a small region along the Russian frontier, are occupied by Poles (Cassubians in West Prussia, Masurians is East Prussia). The total number of German-speaking people, within the boundaries wherein they constitute the compact mass of the population, may be estimated, if the Dutch and Walloons be included, at 65 millions.

The geographical limits of the German language thus do not quite coincide with the German frontiers. The empire contains about 31/8 millions of persons who do not make use of (~erman in everyday life, not counting the resident foreigners.

Apart from the foreigners above mentioned, German subjects speaking a tongue other than German are found only in Prussia, Saxony and Alsace-Lorraine. The following table shows roughly the distribution of German-speaking people in the world outside the German empire: Austria-Hungary. 12,000,000 Other European Netherlands (Dutch) 5,200,000 Countries -. 2,300,000

Belgium (Walloon) - 4,000,000 America.. - 13,000,000

Luxemhurg.. - 200,000 Asia 100,000

Switzerland. - - 2,300,000 Africa. .. 600,000

France. ... 500000 Australia... i50~0OO

According to the census of the fst of December 1900 there were 51,634,757 persons speaking commonly one language and 248,374 speaking two languages. In the kingdom of Saxony, according to the census of 1900, there were 48,000 Wends, mostly in Lusatia. With respect to Alsace-Lorraine, detailed estimates (but no census) gave the number of French in the territory of Lorraine at about f 70,000, and in that of Alsace at about 46,000.

The Poles have increased very much, owing to a greater surplus of births than in the case of the German people in the eastern provinces of Prussia, to immigration from Russia, and to the Polonization of many Germans through clerical and other influences (see History). The Poles are in the majority in upper Silesia (Government district of Oppeln; 55%) and the province of Posen (60%). They are numerous in West Prussia (34%) and East Prussia (14%).

The Wends are decreasing in number, as are also the Lithuanians on the eastern border of East Prussia, Czechs are only found in Silesia on the confines of Bohemia.

Russians flocked to Germany in thousands after the Russo-Japanese War and the insurrections in Russia, and the figures given for 1900 had been doubled in 1907. Males preponderate among the various nationalities, with the exception of the British, the larger proportion of whom are females either in domestic service or engaged in tuition.

Chief Towns.According to the results of the census of the 1st of December 1905 there were within the empire 41 towns with populations exceeding 100,000, viZ.

State. Population.

Berlin Prussia 2,040,148

Hamburg Hamburg 802,793

Munich Bavaria 538,393

Dresden Saxony 516,996

Leipzig ,, 502,570

Breslau Prussia 470,751

Cologne ,, 428,503

Frankfort-on-Main ,, 334,951

Nuremberg.. - - Bavaria 294,344

Düseldorf Prussia 253,099

Hanover ,, 250,032

Stuttgart Württemberg 249,443

Chemnitz Saxony 244,405

Magdeburg Prussia 240,66f

Charlottenburg ,, 239,512

Essen ,, 231,396

Stettin ,, 224,078

Konigsberg ,, 219,862

Bremen Bremen 214,953

Duisburg Prussia 192,227

Dortmund ,, 175,575

Halle ,, 169,899

Altona ,, I68,30I

Strassburg Alsace-Lorraine 167,342

Kiel Prussia 163,710

Elberfeld ,, 162,682

Mannheim. .. - Baden 162,607

Danzig Prussia 159,685

Barmen ,, 156,148

Rixdorf ,,, 153,650

Gelsenkirchen ,, 147,037

Aix-la-Chapelle ,, 143,906

Schoneberg ,, 140,992

Brunswick - Brunswick - 136,423

Posen Prussia 137,067

Cassel ,, 120,446

Bochum ,, 118,455

Karisruhe Baden 111,200

Crefeld Prussia 110,347

Plauen Saxony 105,182

Wiesbaden Prussia 100,953

Density of Population.In respect of density of population, Germany with (1900) 269~9 and (905) 290.4 inhabitants to the square mile is exceeded in Europe only by Belgium, Holland and England. Apart from the free cities, Hamburg, Bremen and Lbeck, the kingdom of Saxony is the most, and MecklenburgStrelitz the least, closely peopled state of the empire. The most thinly populated districts are found, not as might be expected in the mountain regions, but in some parts of the plains. Leaving out of account the small centres, Germany may be roughly divided into two thinly and two densely populated parts. In the former division has to be classed all the North German plain. There it is only in the valleys of the larger navigable rivers and on the southern border of the plain that the density exceeds 200 inhabitants per square mile. In some places, indeed, it is far greater, e.g. at the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, in East Holstein. in the delta of the Memel and the environs of Hamburg. This region is bordered on the south by a densely peopled district, the northern boundary of which may be defined by a line from Coburg via Cassel to Mnster, for in this part there are not only very fertile districts, such as the Goldene Aue in Thuringia, but also centres of industry. The population is thickest in upper Silesia around Beuthen (coal-fields), around Ratibor, Neisse and Waldenburg (coal-fields), around Zittau (kingdom of Saxony), in the Elbe valley around Dresden, in the districts of Zwickau and Leipzig as far as the Saale, on the northern slopes of the Harz and around Bielefeld in Westphalia. In all these the density exceeds 400 inhabitants to the square mile, and in the case of Saxony rises to 750. The third division of Germany comprises the basin of the Danube and Franconia, where around Nuremberg, Bamberg and Wurzburg the population is thickly clustered. The fourth division embraces the valleys of the upper Rhine and Neckar and the district of Dsseldorf on the lower Rhine. In this last the proportion exceeds 1200 inhabitants to the square mile.

Emigralion.-There have been great oscillations in the actual emigration by sea. It first exceeded 100,000 soon after the FrancoGerman War (1872, 126,000), and this occurred again in the years 1880 to 1892. Germany lost during these thirteen years more than 1,700,000 inhabitants by emigration. The total number of those who sailed for the United States from 1820 to 1900 may be estimated at more than 4,500000. The number of German emigrants to Brazil between 1870 and 1900 was about 52,000. The greater number of the more recent emigrants was from the agricultural provinces of northern GermanyWest Prussia, Posen, Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Schleswiz-Holstein and Hanover, and sometimes the emigration reached 1 ,~ of the total population of these provinces. In subsequent years the emigration of native Germans greatly decreased and, in 1905, amounted only to 28,075. But, to this number must be added 284,787 foreigners who in that year were shipped from German ports (notably Hamburg and Bremen) to distant parts. Of the above given numbers of purely German emigrants 26,007 sailed for the United States of America; 243 to Canada; 333 to Brazil; 674 to the Argentine Republic; 7 to other parts of America; 57 to Africa; and 84 to Australia.

AgricultureDespite the enormous development of industries and commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent in Germany a considerable portion of its economic wealth. Almost two-thirds of the soil is occupied by arable land, pastures and meadows, and of the whole area, in 1900, 91% was classed as productive. Of the total area 47.67% was occupied by land under tiilage, 0.89% by gardens, 1102% by meadow-land, 5-01% by pastures, and 0.25% by vineyards. The largest estates are found in the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, Posen and Saxony, and in East and West Prussia, while in the Prussian Rhine province, in Baden and Wurttemberg small farms are the rule.

The same kinds of cereal crops are cultivated in all parts of the empire, but in the south and west wheat is predominant, and in the north and east rye, oats and barley. To these in some districts are added spelt, buckwheat, millet, rice-wheat, lesser spelt and maize. In general the soil is remarkably well cultivated. The three years rotation formerly in use, where autumn and spring-sown grain and fallow succeeded each other, has now been abandoned, except in some districts, where the system has been modified and improved. In south Germany the so-called Fruchtwechsel is practised, the fields being sown with grain crops every second year, and with pease or beans, grasses, potatoes, turnips, &c., in the intermediate years. In north Germany the mixed Koppelwirthschaft is the rule, by which system, after several years of grain crops, the ground is. for two or three seasons in pasture.

Taking the average of the six years 1900-1905, the crop of wheat amounted to 3,550,033 tons (metric), rye to 9,296,616 tons, barley to 3,102,883 tons, and oats to 7,160,883 tons. But, in spite of this considerable yield in cereals, Germany cannot cover her home consumption, and imported on the average of the six years 1900 1905 about 41/2 million tons of cereals to supply the deficiency. The potato is largely cultivated, not merely for food, but for distillation into spirits. This manufacture is prosecuted especially in eastern Germany. The number of distilleries throughout the German empire was, in 1905-1906, 68,405. The common beet (Beta vu! garis) is largely grown in some districts for the production of sugar, which has greatly increased of recent years. There are two centres of the beet sugar production: Magdeburg for the districts Prussian Saxony, Hanover, Brunswick, Anhalt and Thuringia, and Frankfort-on-Oder at the centre of the group Silesia, Brandenburg and Pomerania. Flax and hemp are cultivated, though not so much as formerly, for manufacture into linen and canvas, and also rape seed for the production of oil. The home supply of the former no longer suffices for the native demand. The cultivation of hops is in a very thriving condition in the southern states of Germany. The soil occupied by hops was estimated in 1905 at 98,000 acres a larger area than in Great Britain, which had in the same year about 48,000 acres. The total production of hops was 29,000 tons in 1905, and of this over 25,000 were grown in Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden and Alsace-Lorraine. Almost the whole yield in hops is consumed in the country by the great breweries.

Tobacco forms a most productive and profitable object of culture in many districts. The total extent tinder this crop in 1905 was about 35,000 acres, of which 45% was in Baden, 12% in Bavaria, 30% in Prussia, and the rest in Alsace and Hesse-Darmstadt. In the north the plant is cultivated principally in Pomerania, Brandenburg and East and West Prussia. Of late years the production has somewhat diminished, owing to the extensive tobacco manufacturing indu~tries of Brernen and Hamburg, which import almost exclusively foreign leaves.

Ulm, Nuremberg, Quedlinburg, Erfurt, Strassburg and Guben are famed for their vegetables and garden seeds. Berlin is noted for its flower nurseries, the Rhine valley, Wurttemberg and the Elbe valley below Dresden for fruit, and Frankfurt-on-main for cider.

The culture of the vine is almost confined to southern and western Germany, and especially to the Rhine district. The northern limits of its growth extend from Bonn in a north-easterly -

direction through Cassel to the southern foot of the Vine.

Harz, crossing 52 N. on the Elbe, running then east some miles to the north of that parallel, and finally turning sharply towards the south-west on the Warthe. In the valley of the Saale and Elbe (near Dresden), and in lower Silesia (between Guben and Grunberg), the number of vineyards is small, and the wines of inferior quality; but along the Rhine from Basel to Coblenz, in Alsace, Baden, the Palatinate and Hesse, and above all in the province of Nassau, the lower slopes of the hills are literally covered with vines. Here are produced the celebrated Rdesheimer, Hochheimer and Johannisberger. The vines of the lower Main, particularly those of Wurzburg, are the best kinds; those of the upper Main and the valley of the Neckar are rather inferior. The Moselle wines are lighter and more acid than those of the Rhine. The total amount produced in Germany is estimated at 1000 million gallons, of a value of 4,000,000; Alsace-Lorraine turning out 400 millions; Baden, 175; Bavaria, Wrttemberg and Hesse together, 300; while the remainder, which though small in quantity is in quality the best, is produced by Prussia.

The cultivation of grazing lands in Germany has been greatly improved in recent times and is in a highly prosperous condition.

The provinces of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Hanover Li stock (especially the marsh-lands near the sea) and the grand- ye duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin are particularly remarkable in this respect. The best meadow-lands of Bavaria are in the province of Franconia and in the outer range of the Alps, and those of Saxony in the Erzgebirge. Wurttemberg, Hesse and Thuringia also yield cattle of excellent quality. These large cattle-rearing centres not only supply the home markets but export live stock in considerable quantities to England and France. Butter is also largely exported to England from the North Sea districts and from Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg. The breeding of horses has attained a great perfection. The main centre is in East and West Prussia, then follow the marsh districts on the Elbe and Weser, some parts of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Lippe, Saxony and upper Silesia, lower Bavaria and klsace-Lorraine. Of the stud farms Trakehnen in East Prussia and Graditz in the Prussian province of Saxony enjoy a European reputation. The aggregate number of sheep has shown a considerable falling off, and the rearing of them is mostly carried on only. on large estates, the number showing only 9,692,50, in 1900, and 7,907,200 in 1904, as against 28,000,000 in 1860. As a rule, sheep-farming is resorted to where the soil is of inferior quality and unsuitable for tillage and the breeding of cattle. Far more attention is accordingly given to sheep-farming in northern and north-eastern Germany than in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, the Rhineland and south Germany. The native demand for wool is not covered by the home production, and in this article the export from the United Kingdom to Germany is steadily rising, having amounted in 1905

to a value of 1,691,035, as against 742,632 in 1900. The largest stock of pigs is in central Germany and Saxony, in Westphalia, on the lower Rhine, in Lorraine and Hesse. Central Germany (especially Gotha and Brunswick) exports sausages and hams largely, as well as Westphalia, but here again considerable importation takes place from other countries. Goats are found everywhere, but especially in the hilly districts. Poultry farming is a considerable industry, thegeeseof Pomerania and thefowls of Thuringia and Lorraine being in especial favor. Bee-keeping is of considerable importance, particularly in north Germany and Silesia.

On the whole, despite the prosperous condition of the German live-stock farming, the consumption of meat exceeds the amount rendered available by home production, and prices can only be kept down by a steady increase in the imports from abroad.

Fisheries.The German fisheries, long of little importance, have been carefully fostered within recent years. The deep-sea fishing in the North Sea, thanks to the exertions of the German fishing league (Deulscher Fischereiverein) and to government support, is extremely active. Trawlers are extensively employed, and steamers bring the catches directly to the large fish markets at Geestemnde and Altona, whence facilities are afforded by the railways for the rapid transport of fish to Berlin and other centres. The fish mostly caught are cod, haddock and herrings, while Heligoland yields lobsters, and the islands of Fhr, Amrum and Sylt oysters of good quality. The German North Sea fishing fleet numbered in 1905 6i8 boats, with an aggregate crew of 5441 hands. Equally well developed are the Baltic fisheries, the chief ports engaged in which are Danzig, Eckernfrde, Kolherg and Travemnde. The principal catch is haddock and herring.s. The catch of the North Sea and Baltic fisheries in 1906 was valued at over 700,000, exclusive of herrings for salting. The fisheries do not, however, supply the demand for fish, and fresh, salt and dried fish is imported largely in excess of the home yield.

Mines and Minerals.Germany abounds in minerals, and the extraordinary industrial development of the country since 1870 is largely due to its mineral wealth. Having left France much behind in this respect, it now rivals Great Britain and the United States.

Germany produces more silver than any other European state, and the quantity is annually increasing. It is extracted from the ores in the mines of Freiburg (Saxony), the Harz Mountains, upper Silesia, Merseburg, Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden and Arnsberg. Gold is found in the sand of the rivers Isar, Inn and Rhine, and also, to a limited extent, on the Harz. The quantity yielded in 1905 was, of silver, about 400 tons of a value of I,fioo,00cs, and gold, about 4 tons, valued at about 548,000.

Lead is produced in considerable quantities in upper Silesia, the Harz Mountains, in the Prussian province of Nassau, in the Saxon Erzgebirge and in the Sauerland. The yield in 1905 amounted to about 153,000 tons; of which 20,000 tons were exported.

Copper is found principally in the Mansfeld district of the Prussian province of Saxony and near Arnsberg in the Sauerland, the ore yielding 31,713 tons in 1905, of which 5000 tons were exported.

About 90% of the zinc produced in Europe is yielded by Belgium and Germany. It is mostly found in upper Silesia, around Beuthen, and in the districts of Wiesbaden and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1905 no less than 198,000 tons of block zinc were produced, of which 16,500 tons were exported.

Of other minerals (with the exceptions of coal, iron and salt treated below) nickel and antimony are found in the upper Harz; cobalt in the hilly districts of Hesse and the Saxon Erzgebirge; arsenic in the Riesengebirge; quicksilver in the Sauerland and in the spurs of the Saarbrucken coal hills; graphite in Bavaria; porcelain clay in Saxony and Silesia; amber along the whole Baltic coast; and lime and gypsum in almost all parts.

Coal-mining appears to have been first practised in the I4thcentur at Zwickau (Saxony) and on the Ruhr. There are six large coa -

Coal fields, occupying an area of about 3600 sq. m., of which the most important occt~ies the basin of the Ruhr, its extent being estimated at 2800 sq. m. Here there are more ,than 6o beds, of a total thickness of 150 to 200 ft. of coal; and theamount in the pits has been estimated at 45,000 millions of tons. Smaller fields are found near Osnabruck, Ibbenbbren and Minden, and a larger one near Aix-la-Chapelle. The Saar coal-field, within the area enclosed by the rivers Saar, Nahe and Blies (460 sq. m.), is of great importance. The thickness of 80 beds amounts to 250 ft., and the total mass of coal is estimated at 45,400 million tons. The greater part of the basin belongs to Prussia, the rest to Lorraine. A still larger field exists in the upper Silesian basin, on the borderland between Austria and Poland, containing about 50.000 million tons. Beuthen is the chief centre. The Silesian coal-fields have a second centre in \Valdenhurg, east of the Riesengebirge. The Saxon coal-fields stretch eastwards for some miles from Zwickau. Deposits of less consequence are found in upper Bavaria, upper Franconia, Baden, the Harz and elsewhere.

The following table shows the rapidly increasing development of the coal production. That of lignite is added, the provinces of Saxony and Brandenburg being rich in this product: Production of Coal and Lignite.

F Coal. Lignite.

Year. - -

Quantities. Value. Hands. Quantities. Value.

Mill. Tons. Mill. Mks. Mill. Tons. Mill. Mks.

1871 29-4 218-4.. 8-5 26-2

i8Si 48-7 252-3 186,000 12-8 38-I

189i 73-7 589-5 283,000 20.5 54.2

r899 ,ioi.6 789.6 379,000 34-2 78.4

1900 109.3 966.1 414,000 40.5 98.5

1905 121-2 1049-9 490.000 52.5 1222

This production permits a considerable export of coal to the west and south of the empire, but the distance from the coal-fields to the German coast is such that the import of British coal cannot yet be dispensed with (1905, over 7,000,000 tons). Besides this, from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 tons of lignite come annually from Bohemia. In north Germany peat is also of importance as a fuel; the area of the peat moors in Prussia is estimated at 8000 sq. m., of which 2000 are in the north of Hanover.

The iron-fields of Germany fall into three main groups: those of the lower Rhine and Westphalia, of which Dortmund and Dsseldorf are the centres; those of Lorraine and the Saar; and those of upper Silesia. The output of the ore has enormously increased of recent years, and the production of pig iron, as given for I 905, amounted to 10,875,000 tons of a value of 28,900,000.

Germany possesses abundant saltdeposits. The actual production not only covers the home consumption, but also allows a yearly increasing exportation, especially to Russia, Austriaand Scandinavia. The provinces of Saxony and Hanover, with Thuringia and Anhalt, produce half the whole amount. A large salt-work is found at Strzalkowo (Posen), and smaller ones near Dortmund, Lippstadt and Minden (Westphalia). In south Germany salt abounds most in WUrttemberg (Hall, Heilbronn, Rottweil); the principal Bavarian works are at the foot of the Alps near Freilassing and Rosenheim. Hesse and Baden, Lorraine and the upper Palatinate have also saltworks. The total yield of mined salt amounted in 1905 to 6,209,000 tons, including 1,165,000 tons of rock salt. The production has made great advance, having in 1850 been only 5 million cwts.

Manufactures.In no other country of the world has the manufacturing industry made such rapid strides within recent years as in Germany. This extraordinary development of industrial energy embraces practically all classes of manufactured articles. In a general way the chief manufactures may be geographically distributed as follows. Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria and Saxony are the chief seats of the iron manufacture. Steel is produced in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony is predominant in the production of textiles, though Silesia and Westphalia manufacture linen. Cotton goods are largely produced in Baden, Bavaria, Alsace-Lorraine and Wurttemberg, woollens and worsteds in Saxony and the Rhine province, silk in Rhen.ish Prussia (Elberfeld), Alsace and Baden. Glass and porcelain are largely produced in Bavaria; lace in Sxony; tobacco in Bremen and Hamburg; chemicals in the Prussian province of Saxony; watches in Saxony (Glashutte) and Nuremberg; toys in Bavaria; gold and silver filagree in Berlin and Aschaffenburg; and beer in Bavaria and Prussia.

It is perhaps more in respect of its iron industry than of its other manufactures that Germany has attained a leading position in the markets of the world. Its chief centres are in Westphalia and the Rhine province (auf roter Erde), in upper Silesia, htoi~

in Alsace-Lorraine and in Saxony. Ofthetotal production Engels of pig iron in 1905 amounting to over 10,000,000 tons, more than the half was produced in the Rhineland and Westphalia. Huge blast furnaces are in constant activity, and the output of rolled iron and steel is constantly increasing. In the latter the greatest advance has been made. The greater part of it is produced at or around Essen, where are the famous Krupp works, and BochUm. Many states have been for a considerable time supplied by Krupp with steel guns and battleship plates. The export of steel (railway) rails and bridges from this part is steadily on the increase.

Hardware also, the production of which is centred in Solingen, Heilbronn, Esslingen, &c., is largely exported. Germany stands second to Great Britain in the manufacture of machines and engines. There are in many large cities of north Germany extensive establishments for this purpose, but the industry is not limited to the large cities. In agricultural machinery Germany is a serious competitor with England. The locomotives and wagons for theGerman railways are almost exclusively built in Germany; and Russia, as well as Austria, receives large supplies of railway plant from German works. In shipbuilding, likewise, Germany is practically independent, yards having been established for the construction of the largest vessels.

Before 1871 ,the production of cotton fabrics in France exceeded that in Germany, but as the cotton manufacture is pursued largely in Alsace, the balance is now _______ I against the former country. In 1905 there Cotton were about 9,000,000 spindles in Germany. The and an s. export of the goods manufactured amounted in textiles.

this year to an estimated value of 19,600,000. Cotton spinning and weaving are not confined to one district, but 60 are prosecuted in upper Alsace (MUihausen, Gebweiler, 25, 0 Colmar), in Saxony (Zwickau, Chemnitz, Annaberg), in 35,700 Silesia (Breslau, Liegnitz), in the Rhine province (Dssel 44,700 dorf, Mflnster, Cologne), in Erfurt and Hanover, in 50,900 Wrttember~ (Reutlingen, Cannstatt), in Baden, Bavaria 52, 00 - (Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth) and in the Palatinate.

Although Germany produces wool, flax and hemp, the home production of these materials is not sufficient to meet the demand of manufactures, and large quantities of them have to be imported. In 1895 almost a million persons (half of them women) were employed in this branch of industry, and in 1897 the value of the cloth, buckskin and flannel manufacture was estimated at 18,000,000. The chief seats of this manufacture are the RhenishdistrictsofAix-la-Chapelle, Dtiren, Eupen and Lennep, Brandenburg, Saxony, Silesia and lower Lusatia, the chief centres in this group being Berlin, Cottbus, Spremberg, Sagan and Sommerfeld.

The manufacture of woollen and half-woollen dress materials centres mainly in Saxony, Silesia, the Rhine province and in Alsace. Furniture covers, table covers and plush are made in Elberfeld and Chemnitz, in Westphalia and the Rhine province (notably in Elberfeld and Barmen); shawls in Berlin and the Bavarian Vogtland; carpets in Berlin, Barmen and Silesia. In the town of Schmiedeberg in the last district, as also in Cottbus (Lusatia), oriental patterns are successfully imitated. The chief seats of the stocking manufacture are Chemnitz and Zwickau in Saxony, and Apolda in Thuringia. The export of woollen goods from Germany in 1905 amounted to a value of 13,000,000.

Although linen was formerly one of her most important articles of manufacture, Germany is now left far behind in this industry by Great Britain, France and Austria-Hungary, This branch of textile manufacture has its principal centres in Silesia, Westphalia, Saxony and Wurttemberg, while Hirschberg in Silesia, Bielefeld in Westphalia and Zittau in Saxony are noted for the excellence of theirproductions. The goods manufactured, now no longer, as formerly, coarse in texture, vie with the finer and more delicate fabrics of Belfast. In the textile industry for flax and hemp there were, in 1905, 276,000 fine spindles, 22,300 hand-looms and 17,600 power-looms in operation, and, in 1905, linen and jute materials were exported of an estimated value of over 2,000,000. The jute manufacture, the principal centres of which are Berlin, Bonn, Brunswick and Hamburg, has of late attained considerable dimensions.

Raw silk can scarcely be reckoned among the products of the empire, and the annual demand has thus to be provided for by importation. The main centre of the silk industry is Crefeld and its neighborhood; then come Elberfeld and Barmen, Aix-la-Chapelle, as well as Berlin, Bielefeld, Chemnitz, Stuttgart and the district around Mulhausen in Alsace.

The manufacture of paper, is prosecuted almost everywhere in the empire. There were 1020 mills in operation in 1895, and the exports in 1905 amounted to more than 3,700,000 sterling, as Paper. against imports of a value of over 700,000. The manu facture is carried on to the largest extent in the Rhine province, in Saxony and in Silesia. Wall papers are produced chiefly in Rhenish Prussia, Berlin and Hamburg; the finer sorts of letter-paper in Berlin, Leipzig and Nuremberg; and printing-paper (especially for books) in Leipzig, Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main.

The chief seat of the leather industry is Hesse-Darmstadt, in which Mainz and Worms produce excellent material. In Prussia large factories are in operation in the Rhine province, in Leather. Westphalia and Silesia (Brieg). Boot and shoe manufactures are carried on everywhere; but the best goods are produced by Mainz and Pirmasens. Gloves for export are extensively made in Wurttemberg, and Offenbach and Aschaffenburg are renowned for fancy leather wares, such as purses, satchels and the like.

Berlin and Mainz are celebrated for the manufacture of furniture; Bavaria for toys; the Black Forest for clocks; Nuremberg for pencils; Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main for various perfumes; and Cologne for the famous eau-de-Cologne.

The beetroof sugar manufacture is very considerable. It centres mainly in the Prussian province of Saxony, where Magdeburg is the chief market for the whole of Germany, in Anhalt, BrunsSugar. wick and Silesia. The number of factories was, in 1905, 376, and the amount of raw sugar and molasses produced amounted to 2,643,531 metric tons, and of refined sugar 1,711,063 tons.

Beer is produced throughout the whole of Germany. The pro. duction is relatively greatest in Bavaria. The Brausteuergebie~ & (beer excise district) embraces all the states forming th Cr. Zoliverein, with the exception of Bavaria, Wflrttemberg Baden and Alsace-Lorraine, in which countries the excise duties arc separately collected. The total number of breweries in the beer excise district was, in 1905-1906, 5995, which produced I017 millior gallons; in Bavaria nearly 6000 breweries with 392 million gallons in Baden over 700 breweries with 68 million gallons; in WUrttem berg over 5000 breweries with 87 million gallons; and in Alsace Lorraine 95 breweries with about 29 million gallons. The amoun brewed per head of the population amounted, in 1905, roughly t 160 imperial pints in the excise district; to 450 in Bavaria; 280 jI Wurttemberg; 260 in Baden; and 122 in Alsace-Lorraine. It ma~ be remarked that the beer brewed in Bavaria is generally of darke color than that produced In other states, and extra strong brew are exported largely into the beer excise district and abroad.

Com,nerce.The rapid development of German trade date from the Zoilverein (customs union), under the special rule and regulations of which it is administered. The Zollverei~

emanates from a convention originally entered into, in 1828, between Prussia and Hesse, which, subsequently joined by the Bavarian customs-league, by the kingdom of Saxony and the Thuringian states, came into operation, as regards the countries concerned, on the 1st of January 1834. With progressive territorial extensions during the ensuing fifty years, and embracing the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, it had in 1871, when the German empire was founded, an area of about 209,281 sq. m., with a population of 40,678,000. The last important addition was in October 1888, when Hamburg and Bremen were ~ncorporated. Included within it, besides the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, are the Austrian communes of Jungholz and Mittelberg; while, outside, lie the little free-port territories of Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven and Geestemnde, Heligoland, and small portions of the districts of Constance and Waldshut, lying on the Baden Swiss frontier. Down to 1879 Germany was, in general, a free-trade country. In this year, however, a rigid protective system was introduced by the Zolltarifgesetz, since modified by the commercial treaties between Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Belgium, of the 1st of February 1892, and by a customs tariff law of the 25th of December 1902. The foreign commercial relations of Germany were again altered by the general and conventional customs tariff, which came into force on the 1st of March 1906. The Zolltarifgesetz of the 15th of July 1879, while restricting the former free import, imposed considerable duties. Exempt from duty were now only refuse, raw products, scientific instruments, ships and literary and artistic objects; forty-four articles notably beer, vinegar, sugar, herrings, cocoa, salt, fish oils, ether, alum and sodawere unaffected by the change, while duties were henceforth levied upon a large number of articles which had previously been admitted dtity free, such as pig iron, machines and locomotives, grain, building timber, tallow; horses, cattle and sheep; and, again, the tariff law further increased the duties leviable upon numerous other articles. Export duties were abolished in 1865 and transit dues in 1861. The law under which Great Britain enjoyed the most favored nation treatment expired on the 31st of December 1905, but its provisions were continued by the Bundesrat until further notice. The average value of each article is fixed annually in Germany under the direction of the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission of experts, who receive information from chambers of commerce and other sources. There are separate valuations for imports and exports. The price fixed is that of the goods at the moment of crossing the frontier. For imports the price does not include customs duties, cost of transport, insurance, warehousing, &c., incurred after the frontier is passed. For exports, the price includes all charges within the territory, but drawbacks and bounties are not taken into account. The quantities are determined according to obligatory declarations, and, for imports, the fiscal authorities may actually weigh the goods. For packages an official tax is deducted. The countries whence goods are imported and the ultimate destination of exports are registered. The import dues amounted in the year 1906, the first year of the revised tariff, to about ~3I,639,ooo, or about los. id. per head of population.

Statistics relating to the foreign trade of the Empire are necessarily confined -to comparatively recent times. The quantities of such imported articles as are liable to duty have, indeed, been known for many years; and in 1872 official tables were compiled showing the value both of imports and of exports. But when the results of these tables proved the importation to be very much greater than the exportation, the conviction arose that the valuation of thc exports was erroneous and below the reality. In 1872 the value of thc imports was placed at 173,400,000 and that of the exports al 124,700,000. In 1905 the figures wereimports, 371,000,000 and exports, 292,000,000, including precious metals.

Table A following shows the classification of goods adoptec before the tariff revision of 1906. From 1907 a new classificatior has been adopted, and the change thus introduced is so great that it is impossible to make any comparisons between th~ statistics of years subsequent to and preceding the year 1906 Table B shows imports and exports for 1907 and 1908 accordinf i to the new classification adopted.

TABLE A.Classes of Imports and Exports, igo,~.

Import. Export.

Refuse 6,866,250 1,170,200

Cotton and cottons 23,488,750 22,949,600

Lead and by-products -.. 996,300 979,400

Brush and sieve makers goods 102,400 515,450

Drugs, chemists and oilmen s colors 15,896,900 23,196,250

Iron and iron goods. .. 3,156,500 33,126,400

Ores, precious metals, asbestos, &c 28,834,050 9,899,450

Flax and other vegetable spinning materials except cotton. - 6,794,100 1,235,700

Grain and agricultural produce - 59,136,200 7,496,500

Glass 538,050 2,743,900

Hair, feathers, bristles - -. 3,218,600 1,848,150

Skins 18,965,500 9,548,450

Wood and wooden wares.. 16,940,850 6,056,150

Hops 913,150 2,135,600

Instruments, machines, &c.. 4,351,500 17,898,250

Calendars 34,300 74,700

Caoutchouc, &c 7,379,600 4,616,400

Clothes, body linen, millinery - 739,900 7,321,050

Copper and copper goods - - 8,273,400 10,307,050

Hardware, &c 2,042,400 I2,6I0,550

Leather and leather goods -. 3,567,950 9,665,300

Linens 1,750,100 1,904,950

Candles 11,150 42,350

Literary and works of art -. 3,066,050 9,025,500

Groceries and,confectionery. 41,446,400 17,585,000

Fats and oils, 12,510,600 2,631,600

Paper goods. i,o86,800 7,158,800

Furs 265,700 720,200

Petroleum 5,036,600 132,300

Silks and silk goods 9,523,300 8,889,000

Soap~and perfumes 151,600 768,200

Playing cards 400 18,950

Stone goods 2,822,000 2,110,550

Coal, lignite, coke and peat. 10,136,800 15,096,450

Straw and hemp goods. .. 561,650 262,100

Tar, pitch, resin ,.. 2,504,400 834,100

Animals, and animal products. 9,926,200 590,700

Earthenware goods 391,650 5,076,350

Cattle 11,366,200 725,100

Oilcloth 43,150 177,300

Wools and woollen textiles. 25,290,200 21,562,900

Zinc and zinc goods.. ., 682,250 2,413,600

Tin and japanned goods.. 1,770,550 744,100

Goods insufficiently declared.. - 806,300

Total ~352,3I7,25o 284,626,900

TaBLE B.Classes of Imports and Exports, 5907 and zpo8.

Imports. Exports.

Groups of Articles. Value in 1000. Value in 1000.

1907. I903~i 1907. I908.i Agricultural and forest pro duce~ 215,532 205,512 45,796 50,324

Agricultural produce 93,253 102,954 10,369 L5,f 68

Colonial produce and sub stitutes for the same ~- 12,151 12,328 84 108

Southern fruit and fruit peel 3,214 3,262 20 23

Forest produce.. 28,166 26,299 4,066 3,967

Resins 8,216 8,209 2,500 2,325

Animals and animal pro ducts2 63,283 61,794 9,607 9,676

Hides and skins - - 16,920 17,699 5,383 5,453

Meat, oil, sugar, beverages 21,523 20,404 20,284 20,048

Mineral and fossil raw ma terials, mineral oils. 47,575 45,540 26,166 26,208

Earths and stones. 6,541 7,542 3,250 3,006

Ores, slag, cinders. 16,465 15,451 1,407 1,206

Mineral fuel. -. - 16,895 14,910 19,445 20,020

Mineral oils and other fossil raw materials. 7,168 7,209 558 491

Coal-tar, coal-tar oils - 506 428 1,506 1,485

1 Provisional figures only.

2 Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials.

~ Excluding vegetable textile materials.

Imports. Exports.

Groups of Articles. Value in 1000. Value in 1000.

1907. I908.~ 1907. I908.~

Chemical and pharma ceuticalproducts,colors 14,784 14,850 28,116 26,845

Chemical primary mate rials, acids, salts.. 9,226 9,550 9,661 9,832

Colors and dyeing ma terials 951 879 11,630 10,518

Varnish, lacquer.. 189 158 206 22!

Ether, alcohol not in cluded elsewhere, essen tial oils, perfumery and cosmetics. .. 1,979 1,918 i,i18 1,004

Artificial manures. 992 1,001 1,303 1,236

Explosives of all kinds 86 74 i,6f2 1,269

Other chemical and phar maceutical products I,3&1 1,270 2,586 2,765

Animal and vegetable tex tile materials and wares thereof 98,540 92,105 78,086 70,343

Silk and silk goods. 13,533 13,704 13,324 11,364

Wool 33,260 31,195 27,114 24,918

Unworked wool.. I9,975 19,309 2,647 2,56!

Worked wool.. 4,625 4,961 3,799 3,393

Wares of spun wool 8,660 6,925 20,668 18,964

Cotton 38,543 34,456 29,004 26,201

Unworked cotton. 27,705 26,167 3,264 2,987

Worked cotton.. 980 950 912 89!

Cotton wares.. - 9,858 7,338 24,828 22,324

Other vegetable textile materials. .. 10,783 10,411 3,777 3,47!

Unworked.. ., 7,923 7,819 1,125 1,211

Worked 166 168 122 137

Wares thereof.. 2,685 2,423 2,53! 2,124

Leather and leather wares, furriers wares.. 6,695 6,657 16,778 17,835

Leather 2,658 2,804 7,503 8,328

Leather wares.. 1,332 1,176 4,016 3,867

Furriers wares.. 2,698 2,672 5,237 5,616

Caoutchouc wares.. 694 754 2,328 2;325

Wares of soft caoutchouc 670 735 1,694 1,723

Hardened caoutchouc and wares thereof,. - 24 19 634 602

Wares of animal or vegetable material for carving or moulding 2,448 2,068 4,260 4,131

Wooden wares. .. 859 769 1,707 i,666

Paper, cardboard and wares thereof 1,349 1,205 9,342 9,11!

Books, pictures, paintings 1,992 2,036 4,667 4,765

Earthenware. .. - 467 377 5,224 4,612

Glass and glassware. - 747 728 5,67! 5,149

Precious metals and wares thereof 13,281 21,243 18,629 6,858

Gold ff,6i6 19,295 15,898 6,151

Gold 11,184 18,873 11,071 2,897

Gold wares. ., 432 422 4,827 3,254

Silver 1,665 1,948 2,73! 2,707

Silver 1,434 1,716 1,206 1,418

Silver wares.. - 231 232 1,525 1,289

Base metals and wares thereof 26,035 26,398 57,146 58,895

Iron and iron wares. 5,903 4,472 38,899 40,162

Pig iron (including non- malleable alloys). 1,601 912 966 905

Iron wares 4,302 3,560 37,933 39,257

Aluminium and alumi nium wares. .. 546 453 368 273

Raw aluminium. .. 529 433 152 77

Aluminium wares.. 17 20 216 196

Lead and lead wares.. 1,438 1,484 945 985

Raw lead (including waste) 1,427 1,470 525 568

Lead wares. .. II 14 420 417

Zinc and zinc wares.. 727 847 2,433 2,489

Raw zinc (including waste). ... 706 825 1,631 1,784

Zinc wares. ... 2! 22 802 705

Tin and tin wares.. 2,405 2,629 1,380 1,236

Raw tin (including waste) 2,357 2,581 787 688

Tin wares. ... 48 48 593 548

Nickel and nickel wares 400 540 246 298

Raw nickel.. - - 375 527 160 233

~ Provisional figures only.

Imports. Exports.

Groups of Articles. Value in Li 000. Value in 1000.

1907.1~o8.i 1907.1908.i Nickelwares. - - 25 13 86 65

Copper and copper wares 13,803 15,088 7,998 8,470

Raw copper (including copper coin, brass, tombac, &c.). - - 12,995 14,192 2,204 2,014

Copper wares. - 808 896 5,794 6,456

Instruments of precision 813 885 4,877 4,982

Machinery, vehicles - 7,093 5,489 33,117 34,653

Machinery. - -. 4,090 3,451 19,041 20,684

1 Provisiona The following table shows the commercial intercourse in impor and the chief countries of the 1905.

Perci Country. Value in Gerl 1000. T

Belgium. .. .. - 13,439

Denmark. .. .. - 5,986

France -. .. .. - 19,772

United Kingdom. ... - 35,320 F

Italy -. .. .. - 10,350

Netherlands -.. ., - 12,077

Austria-Hungary. ... - 36,974 F

Rumania -,. .. .. 4,568

Russia. .. ... - 47,816

Sweden -. .. .. - 5,887

Switzerland. .. .. - 8,980

Spain - -. ... - 5,742

British South Africa .,.. - 1,769

Dominion of Canada. .. - 481

New Zealand -. .. - 75

British West Africa. ... 2,562

British India. ... - 13,657 13,657

Dutch Indies. ... - 5,848

Argentine Republic -. .. 18,150

Brazil - -. .. .. 8,454

Chile -. .. -. - 6,536

United States - - - 48,770

Commonwealth of Australia - -, 7,690

_____________________________ Ex~

1905.

Perc Country. Value in GerI

1000. T

Belgium. ... - 15,364

Denmark. .. .. 8,668

France -. .. .. - 14,420

United Kingdom. ... - 51,253

Italy -. .. .. - 8,045

Netherlands -. .. .. 21,295

Norway -. ... - 3,447

Austria-Hungary. .. .. 28,526

Rumania -. .. .. 2,144

Russia. -. .. .. 17,027

Sweden - - -. ... 7,653

Switzerland.. -. .. I7,6~

Spain. .. .. .. 2,609

British South Africa. .. - - 1,687

Dominion of Canada. .. - 1,071

New Zealand - -. ... 227

Turkey - -. .. .. 3,484

British India -. ... - 4,226

China. -. .. ,.. 3,727

Japan -. .. ... 4,158

Argentine Republic. ... 6,463

Brazil. -.. -.. 3,525

Chile -.. -. .. 2,632

United States.. -. - 26,660

Commonwealth of Australia -. - 2,264

Imports. Exports.

Groups of Articles. Value in 1000. Value in 1000.

1907.19o8.i f907.1908i Electro-technical products 411 451 8,227 9,107

Vehicles and vessels - 2,562 1,587 5,849 4,862

Firearms, clocks, musical instruments, toys.. 1,732 1,424 8,704 7,505

Clocks and watches. 1,382 1,134 1,296 I,2I0

Musical instruments - 223 170 3,176 2,780

Toys 39 35 3,949 3,273

Total -. - 442,663 429,636 349,114 336,347

figures only.

5 and exports, exclusive of bullion and coin, between Germany world in 1905, 1906 and 9o7.

~orts.

1906.1907.

ntage Percentage Percentage f Value of Value of lanys in Germanys in Germanys tal 1000. Total 1000. Total orts. Imports. Imports.

~8 14,315 3-6 14,586 34

7 6,302 16 6,050 1.4

21,306 5.4 22,302 5.2

)~1 40,531 103 48,014 II2

11,851 3 14,030 3.3

11,864 3 11,187 2.6

6 39,814 10I 39,939 9.3

.3 5,774 1.5 7,365 1.7

v6 52,528 I34 54,447 12.7

7 7,359 I9 8,457 2

~.6 10,659 2.9 10,366 2.4

-6 7,410 I9 6,878 I6

)5 1,766 0.4 2,258 0.5

)~1 463 0I 483 OI

87 .. 94

).7 2,731 07 3,601 o~8

.9 15,842 4 20,016 4.7

~7 7,002 18 9,199 2-I

5.2 18,302 4.7 21,756 5.1

1.4 9,246 2.4 9,636 22

1.9 7,131 18 7,074 1.6

5.9 6o,~8~ 15~4 64,864 15.1

8,6,9 2~2 11,209 2.6

orts.

1906. I907.

Intage Percentage Percentage)f Value of Value of lanys in Germanys in Germanys)tal 1000. Total 1000. Total orts. Exports. Exports.

5S 17,509 56 16,861 5

3I 9,699 3I 10,182 3

5~1 18,815 6 22,080 66

52,473 168 52,135 15.5

2.9 11,354 36 14,893 4.4

7.6 21,799 7 22,232 6~6

I2 3,573 I2 4,211 1.3

0~I 31,926 I0~2 35,231 10-5

0.8 3,140 I 3,372 I

6 19,962 6.4 21,531 6.4

2.7 8,675 28 9,177 2.7

6.3 18,367 59 21,948 65

0.9 2,838 0.9 3,228

o~6 1,607 0.5 1,422, 0.4

0.4 1,203 0.4 1,456 0.4

oI 244 0~f 263 OI

1.3 3,357 I~I 4,011 I~2

1.5 5,011 I~6 4,868 1.4

1.3 3,331 I! 3,105 0.9

1.5 4,328 1.4 5,036 1.5

2.3 8,367 2~7 8,810 2~6

1.3 4,364 1.4 5,118 1.5

0.9 3,561 I~2 4,167 I~2

95 31,281 10 32,070 9.5

o~8 2,863 0~9 3,004 09

The commerce of Germany shows an upward tendency, which progresses pan ~assu with its greatly increased production. The export of ships from the United Kingdom to the empire dgcreased during two years, 1903 (~3o5,682) and 904 (~365,o62), almost to a vanishing point, German yards being able to cope with the demands made upon them for the supply of vessels of all classes, including mercantile vessels and ships of war. In 1905 and subsequent years, however, the degree of employment in German yards increased to such an extent, principally owing to the placing of the Admiralty contracts with private builders, that the more urgent orders for mercantile vessels were placed abroad.

The following tables give the value of trade between the United Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905 :

Staple Imports into the United Kingdom 1

from Germany. 1900.1905.

_____________- ____

Sugar 9,164,573 10,488,085

Glass and manufactures 1,078,648 I,1o8,1i7

Eggs 1,017,119 764.966

Cottons and yarn 992,244 1,476,385

Woollens and yarn - - - - 1,312,671 1,984,475

Iron and steel and manufactures - 1,012,376 379,479

Machinery 411,178 735,536

Paper 523,544 528,946

Musical instruments - -. - 660,777 676,391

Toys 644,690 714,628

Zinc and manufactures - - - 461,023 673,602

Wood and manufactures - - - 1,470,839 1,109,584

Chemicals 513,200 735,830

Principal Articles exported by Great Britain to Germany. 1900.190~1.

Cottons and yarn 3,843,917 4,941,917

Woollens and yarn 3,743,842 3,795,591

Alpaca, &c., yarn 1,022,259 1,325,519

Wool 742,632 1,691,035

Ironwork 2,937,055 1,500,414

Herrings.. - 1,651,441 2,042,483

Machinery 2,040,797 2,102,835

Coals, cinders 4,267,172 3,406,535

New ships 1,592,865 1,377,081

Navigaiion.The seamen of Frisia are among the best in the world, and the shipping of Bremen and Hamburg had won a respected name tong before a German mercantile marine, properly co called, was heard of. Many Hamburg vessels sailed under charter of English and other houses in foreign, especially Chinese, waters. Since 1868 all German ships have carried a common flagblack, white, red; but formerly Oldenburg, Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, LUbeck, Mecklenburg and Prussia had each its own flag, and Schleswig-Holstein vessels sailed under the Danish flag. The German mercantile fleet occupies, in respect of the number of vessels, the fourth placeafter Great Britain, the United States of America and Norway; but in respect of tonnage it stands thirdafter Great Britain and the United States only.

The following table shows its distribution on the 1st of January of the two years 1905 and f9o8

Baltic Ports. North Sea Ports.

Number. Tonnage. Number. Tonnage. Nui 1905 ..

Sailing vessels - 386 19,067 2181 559,436 2

Steamers - 486 236,509 1171 1,537,563 I

Totals 872 255,576 3352 2,096,999 4

1908

Sailing vessels 394 17,472 2255 516,180 2

Steamers - - 521 274,952 1401 1,981,831 1

Totals - 915 292,424 3656 2,498,011 4

In 1905, 2,36 vessels of 283,171 tons, and in 1908, 2218 vessels o] 284,081 tons, belonged to Prussian ports, and the number of sailors of the mercantile marine was 60,6,6 in 1905 and 71,853 in 1908.

The chief ports are Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen, Kiel, Lbeck, Flensburg, Bremerhaven, Danzig (Neufahrwasser), Geestemunde and Emden; and the number and tonnage of vessels of foreign nationality entering and clearing the ports of the empire, as compared with national shipping, were in 1906:

Number Number Foreign Ships. entered Tonnage. cleared Tonnage.

in Cargo. in Cargo.

Danish - - - 5917 1,589,346 5059 1,219,388

British - - - 5327 5,129,017 32ff 2,552,268

Swedish - - - 4891 1,164,431 3317 747,656

Dutch - - - 2f81 458,401 1973 316,562

Norwegian - -, 1565 817,483 720 347,811

Russian - - - 720 250,564 439 143,983

The ports of Hamburg and Bremen, which are the chief outlets for emigration to the United States of America, carry on a vast commercial trade with all the chief countries of the world, and are the main gates of maritime intercourse between the United Kingdom and Germany.

The inland navigation is served by nearly 25,000 river, canal and coasting vessels, of a tonnage of about 4,000,000.

Raiiways.The period of railway construction was inaugurated in Germany by the opening of the line (4 m. in length) from Nuremberg to FUrth in 1835, followed by the main line (71 m.) between Leipzig and Dresden, opened throughout in 1839. The development of the railway system was slow and was not conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a central government opelated injuriously, for it often happened that intricate negotiations and solemn treaties between several sovereign states were required before a line could be constructed; and, moreover, the course it was to take was often determined less by the general exigencies of commerce than by many trifling interests or desires of neighboring states. The state which was most self-seeking in its railway politics was Hanover, which separated the eastern and western parts of the kingdom of Prussia. The difficulties arising to Prussia from this source were experienced in a still greater degree by the seaports of Bremen and Hamburg, which were severely hampered by the particularism displayed by Hanover.

The making of railways was from the outset regarded by some German states as exclusively a function of the government. The South German states, for example, have only possessed state railways. In Prussia numerous private companies, in the first instance, constructed their systems, and the state contented itself for the most part with laying lines in such districts only as were not likely to attract private capital.

The development of the German railway system falls conveniently into four periods. The first, down in 1840, embraces the beginnings of railway enterprise. The next, down to 1848, shows the linking-up of various existing lines and the establishment of inter-connection between the chief towns. The third, dowh to 1881, shows the gradual establishment of state control in Prussia, and the formation of direct trunk lines. The fourth begins from 1881 with the purchase of practically all the railways in Prussia by the government, and the introducI tion of a uniform system of interworking between the various state systems. The purchase of the railways otal Shipping. by the Prussian government was on the whole nber. Tnnage. equably carried out, but there were several hard cases in the expropriation of some of the smaller private lines.

567 578,503 The majority of the German railways are)57 1,774,072 now own.ed by the state governments. Out of 224 2,352,575 34,470 m. of railway completed and open for ______ traffic in 1906, only 2579 m. were the property of private undertakings, and of these about 5 ~ ~ railways are of the normal 4 ft. 81/2 in. gauge.

571 2,790,435 Narrow-gauge (21/2 ft.) linesor light railways extended over 1218 m. in I9o3, and of these 537 m. were worked by the state.

The board responsible for the imperial control over the whole railway system in Germany is the Reichseisenbahnamt in Berlin, the administration of the various state systems residing, in Prussia, in the ministry of public works; in Bavaria in the ministry of the royal house and of the exterior; in Wurttemberg in the ministry of the exterior; in Saxony in the ministry of the interior; in Baden and- Hesse-Darmstadt in commissions of the ministry of finance; and in Alsace-Lorraine in the imperial ministry of railways.

The management of the Prussian railway system is committed to the charge of twenty directions, into which the whole network of lines is divided, being those of Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Bromberg, Danzig, Elberfeld, Erfurt, Essen ad. Ruhr, Frankfort-on-Main, Halle a.d. Saale, Hanover, Cassel, Kattowitz, Cologne, Konigsberg, Magdeburg, Munster, Posen, Saarbrucken and Stettin. The entire length of the system was in 1906 20,835 m., giving an average of about 950 m. to each direction. The smallest mileage controlled by a direction is Berlin, with 380 m., and the greatest, Konigsberg, with 1200 m.

The Bavarian system embraces 4642 m., and is controlled and managed, apart from the general direction in Munich, by ten traffic boards, in Augsburg, Bamberg, Ingolstadt, Kempten, Munich, Nuremberg, Regensburg, Rosenheim, Weiden and Wurzburg.

The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of i6i6 m., and is controlled by the general direction in Dresden.

The length of the Wurttemberg system is 1141 m., and is managed by a general direction in Stuttgart.

Baden (state) controls 1233, Oldenburg (state) 382, MecklenburgSchwerin 726 and Saxe-Weimar 257 m. respectively. Railways lying within the other smaller states are mostly worked by Prussia.

Alsace-Lorraine has a separate system of 1085 m., which is worked by the imperial general direction in Strassburg.

By the linking-up of the various state systems several grand trunk line routes have been developednotably the lines Berlin-ViennaBudapest; Berlin-Cologne-Brussels and Paris; Berlin-HalleFrankfort-on -Main-Basel; Hamburg-Cassel-Munich and Verona; and Breslau-Dresden-Bamberg-Geneva. Until 1907 no uniform system of passenger rates had been adopted, each state retaining its own faresa condition that led to much confusion. From the 1st of May 1907 the following tariff came into force. For ordinary trains the rate for first class was fixed at 1 3/4d. a mile; for second class at ~7d.; for third class at 1/2d., and for fourth class at 3/4d. a mile. For express